加利福尼亞州零排放車輛（ZEV）強制法規(guī)將從2018年起大幅簡化。在得到這一好消息的同時，相應(yīng)的挑戰(zhàn)也隨之而來：由加州空氣資源委員會（CARB）與俄勒岡州等實行“第177號條款”的9個州所制定的新規(guī)將會逐年提高要求，要想完達到合規(guī)，將變得愈發(fā)困難。而據(jù)統(tǒng)計，ZEV法規(guī)將會影響到美國市場上近三成的轎車與輕型卡車。
根據(jù)CARB的數(shù)據(jù)顯示，在2002年到2004年間，交通運輸領(lǐng)域產(chǎn)生的溫室氣體（GHG，即二氧化碳）占到加州溫室氣體排放總量的38%。
新規(guī)的目標(biāo)是到2030年減少40%的溫室氣體排放，到2050年則能達到80%的降幅。對于汽車部門，ZEV強制令似乎有著相當(dāng)清晰的規(guī)劃。此外，ZEV也已經(jīng)開始對老舊的傳統(tǒng)發(fā)動機進行升級換代，以避免其所帶來的負(fù)面影響。
誰能置身事外，誰又難逃一劫？
在加州，年產(chǎn)量不超過4,500輛的小型汽車制造商（對于獨立制造商則放寬到10,000輛）不會受到ZEV強制法規(guī)的影響。而年產(chǎn)量20,000輛、年收益不超過400億美元廠商被歸為中型整車廠，這部分廠商受到的影響很大。
CARB使用BEV作為純電動車（battery electrics）的縮寫，避免人們誤認(rèn)為ZEV中的“E”和“V”指的是電動汽車EV（electric vehicle）。在2018年以前，汽車廠商主要通過生產(chǎn)純電動車來滿足ZEV強制標(biāo)準(zhǔn)要求，并輔以其他一些計分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)不同的車型，如油電混合動力車——即AT PZEV（先進技術(shù)部分零排放車輛）、PHEV（即插電式混合動力車，在2018年前也稱為“改進型AT PZEV”）以及最基本的非混合動力的PZEV（部分零排放車輛）。
最基本的PZEV對溫室氣體排放量并無積極影響，但它符合加州的超低排放車輛（SULEV）新規(guī)，即要求汽車的尾氣排放（包括碳?xì)浠衔?、碳氧化物、氮氧化物及其他微粒）要比傳統(tǒng)車輛的平均排放量低90%。PZEV的發(fā)動機和催化系統(tǒng)都經(jīng)過了改良，蒸發(fā)排放量為零。它在發(fā)動機進氣口有一個碳排放過濾捕集裝置，可以提高密封性。PZEV的規(guī)定報廢年限為15年，即24.14萬公里（合15萬英里），配有專門的車載診斷設(shè)備。
PZEV和AT PZEV的“加分項”規(guī)定執(zhí)行到2017年就結(jié)束了，但是沒用完的“分?jǐn)?shù)”可以存到2018使用。不過遺憾的是，這些剩余分?jǐn)?shù)的價值將會大打折扣，中型OEM需按25%折算，而大型汽車廠商則只能按6.75%折算。
新增類別——過渡性零排放車輛（TZEV）
升級后的AT PZEV能到達SULEV的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，PHEV純電動續(xù)航里程在16公里以上，同時配有氫燃料內(nèi)燃機（該內(nèi)燃機在EPA 城市道路循環(huán)(UDDS)或者城市工況下續(xù)航里程至少為250英里/400公里）。這一新類別被稱為“過渡性PZEV”（TZEV），符合2018年開始執(zhí)行的新規(guī)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。在純電動模式UDDS工況下，車輛各項性能指標(biāo)至少比原廠提供的參數(shù)高30%。而對于在US06模式（指重載加速模式）下，如純電動里程數(shù)超過16英里，則會另有0.2的TZEV獎勵分。
工程師也知道政府的新規(guī)不會那么簡單。事實上，只有以下這幾類汽車能在2018年繼續(xù)獲得ZEV加分：
-
純電動BEV，累積分（最高4.0）按UDDS工況計算；
-
燃料電池車；
-
上文提到的TZEV；
-
老年社區(qū)內(nèi)電動汽車：最高時速在32-40公里/20-25英里（可獲得適量加分）。
此外，可能還會有“BEVx”這一類別出現(xiàn)，這是一種特殊的混合動力車：純電動續(xù)航里程可以達120公里/75英里以上，同時搭載獲得SULEV認(rèn)證的內(nèi)燃機和油箱，增程里程不得超過純電動模式的續(xù)航里程。
舉個例子，寶馬i3電動車的純電動續(xù)航里程數(shù)約為180公里/114英里，再加上總價3850美元的增程內(nèi)燃機（或發(fā)電機）和7.2升的油箱，總續(xù)航里程為288公里/180英里。雙缸650cc的電動踏板車的發(fā)動機用于對電池組充電，使其電量維持在30%左右。
燃料電池車與BEV屬于同一類別，所得的積分大致相同。如果內(nèi)燃機使用的是氫燃料，且UDDS工況下續(xù)航里程數(shù)不少于400公里，則可以獲得最低0.75的ZEV積分，并同時獲得額外0.5分的VMT（汽車行駛里程）獎勵分。這個轉(zhuǎn)換的公式借用自PHEV類別的計算方式，用來確定對等的純電動續(xù)航里程數(shù)（equivalentall-electric range / EAER）。
2018年的強制法規(guī)特別指出，大型OEM的ZEV累積分?jǐn)?shù)需要達到其2018年銷售量的4.5%，其中的2.5%（占總量的55%）可以用TZEV分?jǐn)?shù)抵扣。年度總分要求以2.5個百分點的速度逐年遞增，而TZEV的遞增速度則為每年0.5個百分點。中型制造商的全部ZEV分?jǐn)?shù)都可以通過TZEV獲取，壓力可謂大為緩解。
另外，2018年之前累積的ZEV分?jǐn)?shù)可以存起來，但ZEV得分不足的部分不能用CAFÉ得分抵扣。例如，菲亞特克萊斯勒已經(jīng)存了90,722個積分（據(jù)業(yè)內(nèi)消息，其中大多數(shù)是從特斯拉買來的），以應(yīng)對其單位能源效率不達標(biāo)的問題。盡管菲亞特自2013年起就在加州和俄勒岡售出了不少（具體數(shù)字沒有披露）500e型純電動車，但據(jù)公布的銷售報告顯示，銷售業(yè)績平平。另外PHEV版Pacifica Minivan也能貢獻一些TZEV積分。
新規(guī)相對2009-17規(guī)定的變化
之前的2009-17法規(guī)把在加州年銷量不超過60,000輛的汽車制造商歸為中型制造商，并允許這部分制造商用PZEV轉(zhuǎn)換得來的分?jǐn)?shù)來完成ZEV的指標(biāo)，同時規(guī)定大型制造商需要在2015-17年期間將ZEV的比例達到14%，不過其ZEV實際比例只需要達到3.0%即可（即在加州年銷售每10萬輛車需要3000積分，換言之就是只要有750輛車的積分達到4.0即可）。
但這次中型廠商的上限標(biāo)準(zhǔn)從年銷售60,000輛車被砍到20,000輛，是因為監(jiān)管機構(gòu)對市場做了重新評估，將全球銷量也一起考慮了進來。根據(jù)2008至2010年的平均銷量，此前只有通用、菲亞特克萊斯勒、福特、日產(chǎn)、豐田和本田這幾個品牌位列加州的“大制造商”行列。
每輛ZEV只要純電動續(xù)航里程不低于80公里/50英里，就能得到2.0個積分。而其他分?jǐn)?shù)則可以通過PZEV、AT PZEV以及改進型AT PZEV得分進行補充。而使用氫燃料或壓縮天然氣（CNG）作為動力的PZEV還能獲得額外分?jǐn)?shù)。PHEV續(xù)航里程數(shù)不少于16公里/10英里，或是搭載再生制動及怠速啟停系統(tǒng)等“先進部件”的汽車，也能享受到額外加分。
多年來，整個行業(yè)的零排放車輛銷售中，加州一直占大頭，因為這里的廣告宣傳很到位，氣候宜人，并且充電基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施也較為完備。但在新規(guī)之下，所有適用ZEV/177號法規(guī)適用的州（主要是俄勒岡和美國東北大部分州），銷量都將按比例相應(yīng)進行計算。但積分可以轉(zhuǎn)移，沒有生產(chǎn)BEV的公司可以選擇購買積分，就像之前提到的菲亞特克萊斯勒從特斯拉那里購買積分一樣。
根據(jù)2018年的強制法規(guī)，只有非加州的燃料電池汽車銷量才可“轉(zhuǎn)移”。而如果這些銷量是跨州計算的（如在俄勒岡州銷售，在新澤西州算分），那么就要有30%的積分手續(xù)費（即原130分，只能計100分）。
“超額合規(guī)”為ZEV新規(guī)“減負(fù)”另辟蹊徑
目前已經(jīng)存入積分銀行的ZEV積分可以在2025年之前隨取隨用。而除此以外，新規(guī)還包括了“GHG-ZEV超額合規(guī)”條款。OEM可以將二氧化碳排放值定在至少低于合規(guī)目標(biāo)值2.0克（具體情況要參照車輛型號以及大?。┑乃剑⒃诰C合參考計算，在UDDS工況下的EPA聯(lián)邦測試協(xié)議的測量值（權(quán)重55%）和EPA高速公路燃料經(jīng)濟性測試的測量值（權(quán)重45%）。汽車制造商的ZEV得分必須根據(jù)這一目標(biāo)值進行計算。
盡管預(yù)測數(shù)據(jù)尚未獲得，但根據(jù)CARB的估算，加州售出的車輛約有10%到20%將可獲得超額加分。加分只能在所獲得的車型年當(dāng)年使用，而且僅限獲得加分的企業(yè)使用（不可用于交易）。根據(jù)新規(guī)，2018年和2019年的抵扣上限為50%，2020年降為40%，2021年則只有30%。
另外一項幫助合規(guī)的手段，也是為鼓勵制造商在ZEV/177號條款適用的州銷售ZEV，以刺激當(dāng)?shù)匦枨蠖贫ǖ?。在美國東北部增加ZEV銷量是非常困難的，因為該地區(qū)的大多數(shù)州冬季氣候寒冷，而汽車供暖需要能源，故而會影響續(xù)航里程。如果不采用特殊設(shè)計——如車輛預(yù)熱、增程發(fā)動機、熱泵乃至蓄熱裝置等，以緩解此類問題，ZEV在那里的銷售將舉步維艱。
如果汽車制造商沒有達到ZEV分?jǐn)?shù)要求，差額需在下一個車型年補足，且只能用ZEV積分填補。中型制造商的填補期限可以放寬到3年，且可以用ZEV或TZEV的分?jǐn)?shù)抵扣。如到期仍未達標(biāo)，則將必須繳納每積分5000美元的罰金。
The good news about the California zero-emission vehicle (ZEV) mandate is that it is greatly simplified starting in 2018. What will be a challenge: the new regulation, formulated by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) and also followed by Oregon and eight other so-called 'Section 177' states, is more difficult each succeeding year. There are fewer ways in which it can be met. Nearly 30% of the U.S. car/light duty truck market is tied to the ZEV mandate.
CARB data show transportation accounted for 38% of California greenhouse gas (GHG/CO2) emissions, reported for the 2002-04 period.
Regulation is intended to reduce GHG by 40% by 2030, and 80% by 2050. The ZEV mandate seems to provide a clearcut path for the automotive sector. Further, ZEVs are seen avoiding deterioration factors associated with ageing conventional engines.
Who's exempt and who gets breaks?
Small carmakers who sell up to 4,500 units per year in California (up to 10,000 for independent makers) are exempt from the ZEV mandate. Intermediate size OEMs (up to 20,000 units/yr with annual revenue of $40 billion or below) get some significant breaks.
Because the 'EV' in ZEV does not necessarily refer to an electric vehicle, CARB uses BEV as its acronym for battery electrics. Prior to 2018, ZEV mandates could be satisfied with a near handful of all-electric vehicles, plus varying credits for some others, including straight hybrids-- called Advanced Technology Partial Zero Emission Vehicles (AT PZEV), plug-ins (PHEV, in pre-2018 period also called Enhanced Technology AT PZEV) and basic non-hybrid PZEVs.
The basic PZEV had no effect on GHG, but it satisfied California’s SULEV (Super Ultra-Low Emission Vehicle) regulation which required a car be 90% lower in emissions (hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and particulates) than the average of conventional vehicles. PZEV includes engine and catalyst system modifications and zero evaporative emissions, using a canister vent trap, a carbon vent at the engine inlet and improved sealing. It carries a 15 year/150,000-mi emissions warranty, and has specific on-board diagnostics.
PZEVs and AT PZEVs credits ended completely in 2017, but leftovers can be “banked” for 2018-on use. However, they’re deeply “devalued,” to 25% for intermediate-size OEMs, to just 6.75% for large makers.
New category - TZEV
The Enhanced Technology AT PZEV meant it met SULEV and had a minimum PHEV 10-mi all-electric range. Along with the hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine (ICE with a 250-mi range or greater on the EPA city cycle, or “UDDS”). It’s in a new category called TZEV (“Transitional PZEV”) and qualifies for 2018-on credits. UDDS range, where used (as for a vehicle’s all-electric range), generally is at least 30% greater than the vehicle label number. There’s also a 0.2 TZEV credit bonus for greater than 10 mi all-electric range on the US06 (heavy acceleration) cycle.
Engineers know that nothing in a government regulation is ever truly simple. Only the following vehicle types are eligible for ZEV credits from 2018-on: (1) a true BEV, with its numerical credit (capped at 4.0) based on rated UDDS range; (2) a fuel cell vehicle; 3) the as-noted “TZEV,” (4) neighborhood electric vehicle as used in adult communities, with top speeds in the 20-25 mph range (eligible for a modest credit).
Finally there’s one we’ll likely be seeing a lot of: the “BEVx,” a battery electric vehicle with a minimum 75 mi all-electric range that includes a SULEV-certified combustion engine and a fuel tank that extends range to no more than the all-electric.
BMW’s I3 electric, for example, has a range of 114-mi on batteries, and a $3850 range extender engine/generator option, which with a 1.9-gal tank increases total range to 180 mi. Its twin-cylinder 650-cc scooter engine engages to recharge the battery pack, maintaining its level at about 30%.
Fuel cell vehicles are in the same category as BEVs, and can earn similar credits. Internal combustion engines that run on hydrogen and have a range of at least 250 mi (UDDS) start with a 0.75 ZEV credit, but can earn up to 0.5 more with what is called a VMT (Vehicle Miles Traveled) allowance. This is based on a formula originated for parallel hybrid PHEVs, to determine an “equivalent all-electric range” (EAER).
The 2018 mandate specifies a large OEM deposit ZEV credits equal to 4.5% of its sales in 2018, although 2.5 of the 4.5 (55%) can be met with TZEV credits. The total requirement rises by 2.5 percentage points per year, with the TZEV number increasing by 0.5. Intermediate-size makers can fulfill all ZEV requirements with TZEV credits, an obviously helpful break.
Further, ZEV credits accumulated prior to 2018 can be banked, but ZEV shortfalls can't be covered with CAFE credits. Indeed Fiat Chrysler has stored 90,722 credits (mostly purchased from Tesla, according to industry sources) to cover its fleet miles-per-gallon deficiencies. Although it has sold an unspecified number of Fiat 500e BEVs in California and Oregon since 2013, the sales have been reportedly modest. The Pacifica minivan PHEV could provide some TZEV credits.
Contrast with 2009-17 regulations
The new rules contrast with the 2009-17 regulations, which put makers with up to 60,000 California sales in the intermediate category, allowed them to meet ZEV requirements with PZEVs, and set large manufacturers with a rising ZEV scale that hit 14% for the 2015-17 period. However, only 3.0% had to be actual ZEV (3000 credits on California sales of 100,000, or 750 vehicles with a credit rating of 4.0).
The reduction from 60,000 to 20,000 unit sales was the result of rulemaking evaluations and consideration of worldwide sales. Previously (2008-2010 averages) only General Motors, Fiat Chrysler, Ford, Nissan, Toyota and Honda were in the California “large” category.
Each ZEV carried an all-electric range multiple starting at 2.0 for 50 mi. The rest could be generated with credits from PZEVs, hybrids (AT PZEVs), and Enhanced AT PZEVs. There was an additional allowance for PZEVs that ran on hydrogen or CNG. Other special allowances, covered PHEVs with a range of equal or greater than 10 mi, and vehicles with “advanced componentry,” such as regenerative braking and idle stop/restart.
For years the industry relied on ZEV sales in California, where they are heavily advertised, the climate is more favorable and there is some charging infrastructure in place. Sales “traveled,” meaning were proportionally applicable to all the ZEV/Section 177 (mostly Northeastern and Oregon) states. Companies without a BEV program could buy credits, as from Tesla.
With the 2018 mandate, only non-California fuel cells “travel” and if they “cross the country” (sold in Oregon, also credited to New Jersey), there’s a 30% credit fee (130 for 100 credits).
Overcompliance a new path that reduces ZEV mandate
In addition to banked ZEV credits, which can be used through to 2025 as needed, there is “GHG-ZEV overcompliance.” An OEM can propose to surpass its fleet average standard by at least 2.0 g CO2 target value (based on model type and vehicle footprint), on UDDS, the EPA Federal Test Protocol City CO2 g/mi (55% ) and EPA Highway Fuel Economy Test (45%). A maker’s ZEVs must be included in the target value calculation.
Although projected data is not available, CARB has estimated some 10-20% of California sales would go for the overcompliance credits. They’re limited to the model year in which they’re earned, can only be used by the earning manufacturer (no trades). There’s a 50% cap on their use for the 2018 and 2019 ZEV mandate, and the cap drops to 40% for 2020 and 30% for 2021.
Another compliance path–penalty-free pooling--also was instituted to encourage ZEV sales in the ZEV/Section 177 states, wherever demand might be stimulated. Increasing sales in the northeast clearly is difficult because most of these states face cold winters and the problem of range reduction from vehicle heating. Without mitigation from specific engineering, such as vehicle pre-heating, range extender engines, heat pumps and perhaps heat storage, ZEVs are likely a hard sell.
If an automaker misses its ZEV requirement, the deficit must be made up by the next model year, using only ZEV credits. Intermediate-size makers may be given up to three years, and use both ZEV and TZEV credits. Failure subjects a carmaker to a $5000 per credit shortfall penalty.
Author: Paul Weissler
Source: SAE Automotive Engineering Magazine
上圖舉例說明了大型汽車廠商要如部署零排放車輛(ZEV)和過渡性零排放車輛（TZEV）,以滿足ZEV法規(guī)要求。按照規(guī)定，每10萬輛汽車中須有500輛ZEV。
根據(jù)UDDS體系（城市工況和純電動續(xù)航里程），TZEV積分最多為1.1，但如能通過US06加速負(fù)重測試，則可以獲取額外的0.2個積分。ZEV的積分上限為4.0.
ZEV和TZEV積分要求逐年遞增，到2025年，ZEV和TZEV的最低比例分別需達到16%和6%。
如果GHG得分超過要求，可以額外獲得特別積分，能讓2018和2019年的ZEV和TZEV合規(guī)壓力“減負(fù)”一半。